East Asia in the 19th Century
- At the start of the 19th century, East Asia was dominated by China, with the Qing dynasty holding significant power. Japan, by comparison, was a small, seemingly isolated island nation. However, things changed dramatically as the century progressed. While China struggled with internal problems and the impact of colonial powers, Japan managed to modernise and build an industrial economy and even establish a colonial empire.
Japan Before Modernisation
The Turning Point
- Japan had a long tradition of historical writings that were used as guides for rulers. The Tokugawa shogunate, which ruled from 1603 to 1867, was a significant period in Japan’s history. The shogunate brought peace by disarming the peasants and allowing only the samurai to carry swords. This era saw the growth of a commercial economy with financial and credit systems and a vibrant urban culture.
- A major turning point came in 1853 when Commodore Matthew Perry of the USA arrived, demanding trade and diplomatic relations. This, combined with the news of China's defeat by the British, made the Japanese feel a sense of urgency and worry that they could be colonised.
The Meiji Restoration
In 1868, the Meiji Restoration took place. This event marked the removal of the shogun from power and the restoration of the Emperor as the central figure of authority. The capital was relocated from Kyoto to Edo, which was renamed Tokyo, meaning “eastern capital.” The Meiji Restoration signified the beginning of Japan's rapid modernization.
Key Reforms of the Meiji Government
The Meiji government implemented many significant reforms:
- Education: A new school system was established in the 1870s with compulsory education for both boys and girls.
- Economy: The government focused on building railways, importing textile machinery, and establishing modern banking institutions. They supported companies like Mitsubishi and Sumitomo, which became major shipbuilders.
- Population Growth: Economic growth and better living conditions increased the population which the government managed by encouraging people to move to Hokkaido, Hawaii, and Brazil.
- Military: The government adopted the slogan ‘fukoku kyohei’ (rich country, strong army), recognising the need to build a strong military. They sent officials to study European monarchies to model their own. The military and bureaucracy were put under the direct command of the Emperor.
Industrial Growth and its Impacts
Japan's rapid industrialisation led to a larger industrial workforce, with many women working in factories initially. However, there were also negative consequences:
- Environmental destruction from unregulated industrial growth
- Social inequalities increased.
Japanese Nationalism and Expansion
The Meiji constitution, enacted in 1889, established a Diet with limited powers. The military and bureaucracy remained under the Emperor's direct control. This led to military expansionism, resulting in wars with China and Russia, both of which Japan won. By 1910 Japan had established a colonial empire by acquiring Taiwan in 1895 and Korea in 1910.
Westernisation and Tradition
Japan’s modernisation was a mix of Westernisation and tradition. Some intellectuals like Fukuzawa Yukichi argued for embracing Western civilisation. Others, like Miyake Setsurei, promoted national pride based on Japanese values.
Daily Life Changes
Modernisation changed daily life in Japan. New ideas about the family emerged, with more nuclear families and new types of domestic goods and entertainment being developed. The cities also changed significantly, with electric trams and public parks, and department stores.
The Path to War and Defeat
In the 1930s and 1940s, Japan's state-centred nationalism led to wars to expand its empire. This culminated in World War II, which Japan entered after attacking the USA at Pearl Harbor. After its defeat, Japan was demilitarised, and a new constitution was introduced.
Post-War Japan
After the war, Japan focused on rebuilding its economy and became a major economic power. The US Occupation helped to establish a more democratic political system. Japan's post-war economic growth is often referred to as an economic ‘miracle’.
Key Takeaways
- Japan's modernisation was rapid and elite-driven, transforming it into an industrial and military power.
- The modernisation process was a blend of adopting Western ideas and preserving some traditional values.
- While successful in many ways, it also led to aggressive nationalism, environmental issues, and social inequalities.
- Japan's story shows how a nation can adapt and change while navigating the complexities of tradition and modernisation.